The Ontological Status Of Properties Essay - 2099 Words

In recent times, the discussion regarding the ontological status of properties has been imbued with renewed interest. Indeed, one’s understanding of properties has significant implications and consequences on their metaphysics of philosophy of the mind. In this essay, I will largely bypass the debates disputing the realness of properties altogether, and instead focus on trying to find a satisfying conception of properties. The reason is twofold: 1) I would like to entertain accounts of property realism that do not suppose properties to be universals; and 2) objections against properties as universals fail to offer adequate alternatives. First, I will provide a traditional account of properties as universals, and the objections against properties due to this characterization, as well as some simple rebuttals against the objections. Then, I will discuss some stances regarding the nature of properties, mainly property minimalism and maximalism, and provide my personal interpretat ions towards them. I hope to show that although properties as universals can be problematic, the alternative of constructing them as particulars has issues of its own. Defining Properties as Universals Properties, sometimes characterized as universals, are thought to exemplify the â€Å"relations of qualitative identity and resemblance among individuals†. In other words, the common quality which unites particulars would be a property shared amongst them. Those who argue in favour of properties usually do soShow MoreRelatedCan Realism Offer A Plausible Response?1677 Words   |  7 PagesBradley’s Regress? Abstract. Both Baxter (2001) and Armstrong (2004) have advanced moderate realist theories of partial identity in order to overcome a version of Bradley’s regress as it arises concerning relations between particulars and their properties. Such arguments, if successful, would also appear to strengthen the case for accepting realism over that of opposing accounts, such as nominalist trope theories . This paper is primarily concerned with Baxter’s theory and finds that, whilst notRead MoreInformation Ethics Essay1050 Words   |  5 Pagesdo with Being itself and not just with the Being of beings which is the matter of metaphysics. The primary aim of an ontological foundation of information ethics is to question the metaphysical ambitions of digital ontology understood as todays pervading understanding of being. The author analyzes some challenges of digital technology, particularly with regard to the moral status of digital agents. It has been argues that information ethics does not only deal with ethical questions relating to theRead MoreReflection Paper On Philosophy730 Words   |  3 Pagesthat I was not a logical person, because I was impulsive and did not require factual evidence for the things I held to be true. This fact about me has not changed, however, going into this original paper, I do not believe I entirely understood the properties of logic. Through philosophy, I have learned that goal of logic is not to necessarily always rely on facts but to be able to properly defend our beliefs without the use of false reasonings or fallacies. Basically, in plain terms, when trying toRead MoreDavid Lewis s New Work For A Theory Of Universals861 Words   |  4 Pages One consequence of viewing ontology and identity as relative is that properties and universals hardly seem much more problematic. Although universals obviously do not exist on a fundamental level, I think both David Lewis and David Armstrong provide helpful suggestions on the scope of universals in practical discourse. While David Lewis’s essay â€Å"New Work for a Theory of Universals† (1983) is quite extensive in its scope and insight, I only wish to draw attention to his reasoning about the scopeRead MoreIndigenous Sovereignty And The Being Of The Occupier2307 Words   |  10 Pagesand the Being of the Occupier 60 of individuals to life, liberty and property. 38 But, from the standpoint of the absolute right of the self-instituting gath - ering-we of property owners that we have been elaborating, it is not the protection of life but the possibility of sacrificing one’s life that is at the heart of being as-a-world of persons. From this perspective, the primary concern is not to rec - ognize that property ownership flows from mixing one’s la - bor with the earth, as is sometimesRead MoreThe Philosophy Of Mind By Paul Churchland1327 Words   |  6 Pagesreplaces the perceiver with functioning biological bodies. The perceiver gets reduced to an organized body, mind becomes the brain, body motions become actions, man becomes the person. Churchland redefines phenomenal qualities as being nothing but properties of the brain. Cognitive events such as understanding, recognising, feeling, and perceiving are replaced with neural analogs. Here psychological events are treated solely as neural events. This is the prevailing view in cognitive science. These contemporaryRead More Mackies Arguments Against Objective Values Essay1693 Words   |  7 Pagesquite literal in claiming objective facts. Basically, Mackie is an error theorist, so he believes that judgments have a truth value even though there are no possible objective values that could ever make them true. The crux of his position is an ontological view about the absence of objective values. Mackie?s second step in defining his position is to set its boundaries. When he speaks of values, he means not only moral values but any sort of values that may be believed objective, such as aestheticRead MoreThe Political Philosophy Of Politics Essay921 Words   |  4 Pagesprivilege† (PTR 217). In a more libertarian view of open admission, Carens makes the argument that individuals have more rights, especially in regards to mobility, than the collective property rights of the general population. In other words, private landowners can do with their land whatever they want, while public property such as national parks and federal reservations is exempt from closed-border policies (L10). In an article for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Dominique Leydet asks theRead MoreThe Black Box Of Christian Spirituality1051 Words   |  5 PagesIpseities and societies are complex systems with memory and emerging properties. These systems never exist or desist, but consist, resist, and insist. Indeed, opening the black box of Christian Spirituality reveals a complex system. Christian Spirituality, as a complex system,  draws on the rich symbolic memory of Christian tradition’s diversity. A rich symbolic memory has three advantages expatiated on in this section: i. Christian Spirituality, as a complex system, can be described yet neverRead MoreSimilarities Between Primary And Secondary Qualities1455 Words   |  6 Pagesintrinsic and non-relational properties – those it would in principle possess even in the absence of any other body. Locke describes primary qualities as ‘in the things themselves, whether they are perceived or no’ (Locke 2.8.23); they are mind-independent. Locke uses the example of a clock to highlight its primary qualities of perceptible mechanical structure. First, it is a property of bodies conceptually distinguishing them from empty space; second, it is an actual property underlying the power of

Government and Social Issues - 802 Words

Government and Social Issues It appears readily apparent that an increase in tax revenues for alcohol would only aid in the prevention of violence related to alcohol in Australia. This fact, and the bulk of statistical evidence that supports it, is largely known to the Australian government and its appropriate authorities that mandate tax rules. However the governments primary concern seems to be appeasing the wine industry in the country, which is taxed at a much lower rate than other forms of alcoholic beverages including hard liquor and beer, despite having the same quantities of alcohol in the individual drinks. When one takes this notion into account, it becomes plain that the decision to not increase tax on wine in Australia is a simple matter of economics in which the authorities would rather save the wine industry 12,000 jobs and not decrease its sales by 34 percent which the imposition of stricter tax regulations purportedly would have done and instead pay the cost in the treatment of and picking up the piece for the violence that stems from alcohol, which impacts the economy to the tune of $15 billion a year (No author, 2010). The most convincing evidence for the correlation between increased alcohol taxes and better health care, however, stems from the fact that there is empirical evidence to support the notion that higher taxation and prices leads to lower rates of consumption of intoxicants (No author, 2010). The best way to target children in a ProgramShow MoreRelatedSocial Media Evidence Of Government Investigations And Criminal Proceedings A Frontier Of New Legal Issues1370 Words   |  6 Pageshttp://jolt.richmond.edu/index.php/social-media-evidence-in-government-investigations-and-criminal-proceedings-a-frontier-of-new-legal-issues/ d. Search Google, looking for information about Facebook acting unethical in a non-US location. Look at 3 different links, give them here. What potential issues do you learn from these links? List them. In the first URL Facebook is being investigated to assess whether an experiment in which it manipulated users news feeds to study the effect it had onRead MoreDiscuss the Key Political and Social Issues of the Post-War Era (Ie. During the Attle Government 1945-1951)1000 Words   |  4 PagesPolitical issues: †¢ Women played a major role in WW2 and were permanent in the industries now. †¢ Political conflict between the war time coalition governments Churchill PM Conservative, Attlee DPM Labour: 1) The war-time coalition between the Conservatives (led by PM Winston Churchill) and Labour (led by Deputy PM Clement Attlee) broke up in 1945 over the question of the nature of the British society in the future. 2) The Conservatives would have been happy for a return to the inter-war practiceRead MoreSocial Welfare And The Welfare System924 Words   |  4 Pagespolicy issues, whether those issues include social welfare, immigration or even environmental issues. Congress receives numerous issues on public polices every day, but they cannot handle and solve every issues that comes across their daily agenda, nor can they satisfy every person in this country. Congress prioritizes on those issues that are more important and relevant to find a probable solution too. A growing issue we see that in today’s society are issues in the social welfare system. Social WelfareRead MorePublic Policy Of Globalization On Canada Essay1692 Words   |  7 PagesPublic Policy of Globalization in Canada The government is what makes executive decision for the public policy. Society is influenced by our living and working conditions which shape health. The social determinants of heath shape material, psychosocial, and behavioral routes. However, stages of life like, genetics, early life, and cultural factors are some components that influence health. The Canadian welfare state shape public policies enhance the social determinants in Canada and the low qualityRead MoreNorth Dakota Access Pipeline ( 2016 ) And The Als Ice Bucket Challenge1599 Words   |  7 Pageshas experienced many social movements. For example, there have been movements such as Black Lives Matter (2012), North Dakota Access Pipeline (2016) and the ALS Ice Bucket Challenge (2014). These movements have been lead by students, unions, and concerned citizens of the United States who want to see a change in social or political issues. These movements can be seen across the United States and even across the world. But how are these movements funded and what are the issues that go along with fundingRead MoreThe Role of Government in Policy-Making781 Words   |  4 PagesThe Role of Government in Policy-Making Holly Regan HSM/240 January 26, 2014 Terra Harris The Role of Government in Policy-Making There are three branches of government established by the U.S. Constitution which are: the legislative branch, executive branch, and the judicial branch. The purpose for these three branches of government is to establish the individual and combined powers of each branch, while reserving the rights of each individual state in the union, (Buzzle, 2014. The outlineRead MorePolicy Models Or Frameworks.. The Assignment Seeks To Explore1523 Words   |  7 PagesLegislation Amendment Bill/Policy issue and discuss about the present roles the New Zealand government is doing, recognizing relevant concepts and frameworks which are used clarify the roles for government in New Zealand and my country of origin. Furthermore, a dissimilar framework will be applied to the housing policy issue and its implications will be scrutinized for understanding the roles of the government and other stakeholders with the respect to the issue. Scott, (2010) argues about the theoryRead MoreThe New Right Essay159 0 Words   |  7 Pageswith agendas to increase government involvement beyond the established conservative view of government’s role. Although New Right politicians made admirable advances to dissemble New Deal economic policies, the movement as a whole counters conservativism and the ideologies that America was founded on. Although the New Right adopts conservative economic ideologies, its social agenda weakened the conservative movement by focusing public attention to social and cultural issues that have no place withinRead MoreThe Social Problems Of The Students1382 Words   |  6 PagesThe Participants For the purpose of this assignment I interviewed three people, inquiring them on their perceptions of modern social problems. In order for them to remain anonymous I will use first and last initials as identification. First I spoke with PH. PH is a 45-year-old male who identifies as male and White. He went to a four-year institution and holds a BS degree and lives in the southeastern part of the United States. Next I interviewed GT. GT is also a male who identifies as maleRead MoreCausal Theories And Social Construction827 Words   |  4 Pages Causal Theories and Social Construction Stone (1989) explained that situations are created by human action and influence human intervention. The author argued the idea that problems are tied to image making, where the images have to do fundamentally with attributing cause, blame, and responsibility. More importantly, the idea that political parties portray situations as harmful in society, which they then tie issues to organizations and individuals. This allows the political actors to gain support

The Second Amendment Why It Is Important to Our Country

On December 15, 1791, the Bill of Rights was ratified effective by Congress. These first ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States of America promised the states certain rights and freedoms which could not be infringed by the government. After all, the founding fathers knew from experience that men in their weakness were often tempted by power. They had become all too familiar with this when under the control of King George in England. Therefore, in order to protect the future people of their beautiful country, they promised certain liberties which could not be taken away. Every single one of these freedoms is important for the United States of America. However, the second amendment is especially important†¦show more content†¦Man will be tempted, government leaders will take advantage of their power for control, and darkness may fall over the land, but as long as good men are not idle, evil will not thrive. The second amendment enables the good to take action against evil. Thomas Jefferson put this best when he said, â€Å"No free man shall ever be debarred the use of arms. The strongest reason for the people to retain the right to keep and bear arms is, as a last resort, to protect themselves against tyranny in government.† Our second amendment is important because it gives good men the ability to protect those self-evident truths from a corrupt and overreaching government. Some fallen men in power today are trying to destroy our beautiful country. The basic principles written in our Constitution and Declaration of Independence are being discarded. The self-evident truths which our wise founding fathers knew so well are not so obvious to our leaders today. As for the right to life, our country has declared that it is no longer a right bestowed on all men by their Creator, but can only be granted to some by the government. We have legalized abortion in all states, and euthanasia and assisted suicide in some states. The government has allowed and promoted death to become part of the culture. As for liberty, the first amendment of our Bill of Rights has already been taken away. The HHS Mandate forces us asShow MoreRelatedImportance Of The Second Amendment1168 Words   |  5 PagesThe Second Amendment Imagine youre sleeping at night and then suddenly, you wake up. You walk in into your kitchen and grab a glass of water and hear a noise, you realize there is someone in your house. Whats your first action, what are you going to do? Our second amendment protects us in this situation. The problem solver to this situation is to get a gun and maybe use it in defense for your safety and others. Our Second Amendment gives us a right to guns and to use them for defense in orderRead MoreThe National Rifle Association of America Essay1159 Words   |  5 Pagesand largest civil rights organization is under attack, but why? That’s what is going on right now with the NRA and the issues that they are defending. Ever since the NRA was founded, it has been doing things to help out the people of this country and to shape the country itself. There are so many controversies that are going on today in politics that are the center of the NRA’s philosophy. The NRA does a lot for the peop le of this country by impacting the lives of millions of Americans, through itsRead MoreGun Control795 Words   |  4 Pagesthe big difference between the U.S. and these other countries? In these other countries it nearly impossible to buy any kind of gun. In these countries there are no gun shows. In these countries you cant buy a gun at a pawnshop or your local Wal-Mart. These countries have strict gun laws and are all about gun control. In this paper I will discus the correct interpretation of the Second Amendment, why guns are such a problem in the U.S., and why guns are more likely to kill a friend instead of aRead MoreArgument Supporting Increased Gun Control in the United States772 Words   |  4 Pagesthe big difference between the U.S. and these other countries? In these other countries it nearly impossible to buy any kind of gun. In these countries there are no gun shows. In these countries you can’t buy a gun at a pawnshop or your local Wal-Mart. These countr ies have strict gun laws and are all about gun control. In this paper I will discus the correct interpretation of the Second Amendment, why guns are such a problem in the U.S., and why guns are more likely to kill a friend instead of a foeRead More Freedom of Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly, and Petition Essay examples767 Words   |  4 PagesThere are three main reasons why we have or need our Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition. First, the 1st Amendment gives us our independence. Second, it also gives us the right to express ourselves. Last but not least, it allows people to express themselves without constraint by the government. The 1st Amendment is a very essential freedom that everyone should be entitled to. Our independence is the most important essential need of humans. It Read MoreThe 2nd Amendment Essay1119 Words   |  5 PagesThe Second Amendment Most people would link violence and crime problems with gun control in America. The debate that Americans face today is the freedom the Second Amendment gives citizens and whether or not the country should repeal it. While some people feel that repealing it should solve the problem, others believe that it is one of the most important basic freedoms we have as Americans. 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According to the Constitution, not every American boy and girl has the chance to lead this country. In fact, any individual that has not been born a citizen of the United States is automatically disqualified from the race to become president. Article II, section I of the Constitution states clearly that only natural-born citizens of the UnitedRead MoreThe Second Amendment And Gun Control928 Words   |  4 PagesIt is in our own lives we define what we believe and what we believe in ultimately defines us. Not only do our views of ourselves matter as to who we are, what we stand for, and what we deem important, but also others’ view of our own person are sometim es just as or more important. In reference to the Second Amendment and gun control, the author, Saul Cornell, makes a case for how sometimes every group can think they are the ones in the right, but at the same time, every group can ultimately be inRead MoreUs Constitution Essay1653 Words   |  7 Pagestwenty-five years old, Today, many of us question whether or not the United States Constitution is still relevant. When our founding fathers wrote the Constitution, it was written according to their needs in the eighteenth century. According to the Bill of Rights, everyone has the right to bear arms, but in the twenty-first century what exactly does it mean to have the right to bear arms? Our meaning of the Constitution today, is different than the meaning of the Constitution two hundred and twenty-five

Saint Paul the Apostle free essay sample

Saint Paul is very significant for numerous reasons and in various ways. He was very essential for the faith of Christianity. One way he was important (later on in life) was his upbringing as a Jew, and his miraculous conversion to Christianity. In addition to that Saint Paul was important for his campaign work, spreading Christianity to new lands. And most importantly he is essential for all of his writings that contributed to a majority of the New Testament. All of Saint Paul’s experiences throughout his lifetime are what molded him into what he was. Every stage in his life was crucial in how (later on in life) he defined Christianity to many people. He risked his life trying to share the belief Christianity all over the world. Saint Paul is undoubtedly one of the most important figures in the history of the Western world. â€Å"Paul was probably born sometime between the years 3 and 15 A. D. † (Buckmaster 1) Paul was born on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in a Provence named Tarsus. Tarsus was a very large and important trade center under the rule of Rome. Over a quarter of a million people resided there due to the abundance of work and the excellent quality of life. Tarsus was a lodestar for merchants, philosophers, and the footloose rich who traveled tirelessly in pursuit of the sights† (Buckmaster 1) Tarsus was a very wealthy place mainly because of its trade. Also Tarsus was also known for being a center of well-educated and well-skilled people. His family worked as tent-makers and he also acquired the skill at a young age. Tarsus did not grant Roman citizenship for every citizen that resided there. If a citizen of Tarsus was from a family of social standing of four generations or more, they were generally granted citizenship status. Tarsus was a fusion of civilizations at peace under the rule of Rome† (Pollock 4) â€Å"Saul was a freeborn Roman citizen, and a Jew. † (Buckmaster 2) Being a Roman citizen Paul had two names. One name would show heritage apart from Rome, and the other name would show the Roman heritage. Pauls Roman name was Saul Paulus; Saul was Hebrew and Paulus was Roman. Saul meant, â€Å"desired for† and Paulus meant â€Å"small. † He was born into his Jewish heritage because his family converted to Judaism well before he was born. There were three main sections to Judaism, it included Pharisees, Sadducees, and the Essenes. The Essenes were very generous and virtuous. They would work hard and take care of the less fortunate. The Sadducees were strictest of the three in the sense that the most elite, rich and powerful fell in this category. The Pharisees was the largest and most popular. Paul and his family were of Pharisees. Pharisees believed in following the laws of Moses precisely. â€Å"Phariseeism cooled and ordered the spirit. The Pharisees laid great stress on the ritual and forms of pious law. In defense of Judaism they evolved a great body of precepts which went beyond the law of Moses. † (Buckmaster 6) At a young age Paul went to and lived in Jerusalem, to attend the Pharisaic school. He was a student of the Rabbi Gamaliel, who was one of the greatest teachers of the first century. â€Å"During the next five or six years he sat at the feet of Gamaliel†¦ Paul learned to dissect a text until scores of possible meaning were disclosed according to the considered opinion of the generations of rabbis, who had obscured the original sense by layers of tradition to protect an Israelite from the least possible infringement of the law; and illogically, to help him avoid its inconveniences. Paul learned to debate in the question-and-answer style know to the ancient world as the â€Å"diatribe,† and to expound, for a rabbi was part lawyer who prosecuted or defended those who broke the sacred Law, and part teacher. † (Pollock 6, 7) He studied the Hebrew bible and also was educated in ethics, Greek writings and philosophy. Paul did not become a rabbi after he completed his education; instead, he became a member of the temple police. His goal was to go after and persecute the followers of Jesus Christ and/or Christianity. â€Å"With his sworn followers Paul now instituted a reign of terror among the Hellenistic Nazarenes of Jerusalem. (Kraeling 45) Paul would even go into synagogues and arrest their members. He attempted to do whatever he could to destroy the church of God. The high priest instructed Saul to travel to Damascus and arrest the important members of the Jerusalem Church. â€Å"The High Priest gave him [Saul] letters of authority to seize the Naza renes who had escaped to Damascus. † (Buckmaster 20) On his way to Damascus, â€Å"As he neared Damascus on his journey, suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him. He fell to the ground and heard a voice say to him, â€Å"Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? â€Å"Who are you, Lord? † Saul asked. â€Å"I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting,† he replied. â€Å"Now get up and go into the city, and you will be told what you must do. † The men traveling with Saul stood there speechless; they heard the sound but did not see anyone. Saul got up from the ground, but when he opened his eyes he could see nothing. So they led him by the hand into Damascus. † (Acts 9:4-8) In Damascus there was a man named Ananias. Ananias was a follower of Jesus, he placed his hands on Paul and took away the blindness. That is when Paul was baptized into the faith. From that moment on he was a follower of Christ and began his journey. After his vision on the way to Damascus, Paul was fully converted. He was no longer a terror and persecutor to the followers of Jesus. It was a calling for Paul, it was his new life, and he would pursue it with more passion than he did Judaism. From that moment on Paul went on numerous missionary journeys spreading the name of his Lord, Jesus Christ. Paul traveled throughout the Mediterranean preaching the gospel. He used Rome’s advanced road systems and the sea to voyage around. Paul was documented taking at least 3 major missionary journeys. Paul’s missionary journey began in the year C. E. 44. He traveled to Cypress and converted their governor. From that moment on he was known as Saint Paul. â€Å"In little more than ten years St. Paul established the Church in four provinces of the Empire, Galatia, Macedonia, Achaia and Asia. Before A. D. 47 there were no Churches in these provinces; in A. D 57 St. Paul could speak as if his work there was done. † (Bruce 18) Along his travels he built churches and he debated. Paul also fought against a Jewish-Christianity. That is Christianity that had to follow the laws of the Jews. For example like their dietary laws (no shellfish or pork) and circumcision. â€Å"This transition from a pure mission to the Jews to a mission to the Gentiles conducted by Hellenists should be understood not as a one-time event, but rather as a process. † (Riesner 109) Paul was also known for writing many letters, they â€Å"provide an authoritative interpretation of the Gospel. † (Selby 235) He wrote in his letters that Christians were freed from the law. So he built a Christian faith apart from Jewish traditions and made it much more accessible to Greeks. He also wrote letters to churches and church leaders. These letters intention was to teach the new churches Christian doctrines, correct any problems that might have occurred and to inspire the followers. â€Å"Whatever the Church’s needs, his letters have helped to find an answer. Moral instruction, courageous example, hope, exhortations to true piety profound theological ideas—they are all there. † (Selby 10) In total Paul wrote 13 letters, which were in turn the writings of the New Testament. Throughout his life Paul was in and out of various prisons all around the world. This was because many Jews hated the fact that the Apostles were on their conquest. Unfortunately it ultimately catches up with Paul and leads to his death. All in all Paul was arrested 4 times and spent around 6 years in prison. He was beaten and tortured numerous times throughout his life. â€Å"Paul was arrested for the last time probably in the summer of A. D 66. †(Pollock 234) He was arrested in Rome and was held there until A. D. 68. â€Å"Of Paul’s final trial nothing is known beyond a tradition that he was condemned by resolution of the Senate on the charge of treason against the divine Emperor. (Pollock 237) Eventually the Romans beheaded him in the year A. D. 68. Saint Pauls life was simply amazing and he singlehandedly changed the course of Christianity. In a way he set the tone for Christianity. Paul made a large impact for Christianity as an Apostle, writer and interpreter. He had expanded the church while traveling tens of thousands of miles to distant pl aces. He was crucial in moving Christianity from a Jewish-based belief in practices and in location to entire Mediterranean. Every voyage he put his life on the line to spread the name of Jesus Christ. He was detained a total of 6 times and was beaten and tortured numerous times. Saint Paul wouldn’t be as influential as he was if he didn’t experience what he did in his early life. Growing up he was a faithful Jew and even was educated for 6 years to essentially hate all forms of Christianity. On his way to Damascus when he saw Jesus and he spoke to him it changed everything for him. He transformed from a passionate Christianity hater to a passionate Christianity advocate. In my opinion that drastic leap of faith gave him the best view of both worlds. With that being said I think that’s the reason why he was such a great advocate. He knew what he was exactly preaching for, and he knew what he was preaching against in precise detail. He knew because he experienced it. That’s one reason why he was so popular and successful. His letters created most of the New Testament and it gave people an understanding of the faith itself. Saint Paul was a very learned kid growing up, even spending multiple years studying under one of the top Rabbi’s in history at an elite school. He meticulously studied the Hebrew bible, ethics, Greek writings and philosophy.